rubyboot - Beginner's Object-Oriented Tutorial, Ruby and Perl
This document includes the text of perlboot, and adds specific examples of Ruby code to help the reader learn OO technology, and to identify some differences between the two languages.
Ruby-specific sections usually follow the Perl code, and are separated from the original perlboot document with these delimiters:
##### Start Ruby ############################# ##### Finish Ruby ##############################
If you're not familiar with objects from other languages, some of the other Perl object documentation may be a little daunting, such as perlobj, a basic reference in using objects, and perltoot, which introduces readers to the peculiarities of Perl's object system in a tutorial way.
So, let's take a different approach, presuming no prior object experience. It helps if you know about subroutines (perlsub), references (perlref et. seq.), and packages (perlmod), so become familiar with those first if you haven't already.
Let's let the animals talk for a moment:
sub Cow::speak {
print "a Cow goes moooo!\n";
}
sub Horse::speak {
print "a Horse goes neigh!\n";
}
sub Sheep::speak {
print "a Sheep goes baaaah!\n"
}
Cow::speak;
Horse::speak;
Sheep::speak;
This results in:
a Cow goes moooo!
a Horse goes neigh!
a Sheep goes baaaah!
Nothing spectacular here. Simple subroutines, albeit from separate packages, and called using the full package name. So let's create an entire pasture:
# Cow::speak, Horse::speak, Sheep::speak as before
@pasture = qw(Cow Cow Horse Sheep Sheep);
foreach $animal (@pasture) {
&{$animal."::speak"};
}
This results in:
a Cow goes moooo!
a Cow goes moooo!
a Horse goes neigh!
a Sheep goes baaaah!
a Sheep goes baaaah!
Wow. That symbolic coderef de-referencing there is pretty nasty.
We're counting on no strict subs mode, certainly not recommended
for larger programs. And why was that necessary? Because the name of
the package seems to be inseparable from the name of the subroutine we
want to invoke within that package.
Or is it?
For now, let's say that Class->method invokes subroutine
method in package Class. (Here, ``Class'' is used in its
``category'' meaning, not its ``scholastic'' meaning.) That's not
completely accurate, but we'll do this one step at a time. Now let's
use it like so:
# Cow::speak, Horse::speak, Sheep::speak as before
Cow->speak;
Horse->speak;
Sheep->speak;
And once again, this results in:
a Cow goes moooo!
a Horse goes neigh!
a Sheep goes baaaah!
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Basic class definition
class Cow
def speak
print "A cow goes moooo!\n"
end
end
aCow = Cow.new aCow.speak
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
That's not fun yet. Same number of characters, all constant, no variables. But yet, the parts are separable now. Watch:
$a = "Cow";
$a->speak; # invokes Cow->speak
Ahh! Now that the package name has been parted from the subroutine
name, we can use a variable package name. And this time, we've got
something that works even when use strict refs is enabled.
Let's take that new arrow invocation and put it back in the barnyard example:
sub Cow::speak {
print "a Cow goes moooo!\n";
}
sub Horse::speak {
print "a Horse goes neigh!\n";
}
sub Sheep::speak {
print "a Sheep goes baaaah!\n"
}
@pasture = qw(Cow Cow Horse Sheep Sheep);
foreach $animal (@pasture) {
$animal->speak;
}
There! Now we have the animals all talking, and safely at that, without the use of symbolic coderefs.
But look at all that common code. Each of the speak routines has a
similar structure: a print operator and a string that contains
common text, except for two of the words. It'd be nice if we could
factor out the commonality, in case we decide later to change it all
to says instead of goes.
And we actually have a way of doing that without much fuss, but we have to hear a bit more about what the method invocation arrow is actually doing for us.
The invocation of:
Class->method(@args)
attempts to invoke subroutine Class::method as:
Class::method("Class", @args);
(If the subroutine can't be found, ``inheritance'' kicks in, but we'll
get to that later.) This means that we get the class name as the
first parameter (the only parameter, if no arguments are given). So
we can rewrite the Sheep speaking subroutine as:
sub Sheep::speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes baaaah!\n";
}
And the other two animals come out similarly:
sub Cow::speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes moooo!\n";
}
sub Horse::speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes neigh!\n";
}
In each case, $class will get the value appropriate for that
subroutine. But once again, we have a lot of similar structure. Can
we factor that out even further? Yes, by calling another method in
the same class.
Let's call out from speak to a helper method called sound.
This method provides the constant text for the sound itself.
{ package Cow;
sub sound { "moooo" }
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes ", $class->sound, "!\n"
}
}
Now, when we call Cow->speak, we get a $class of Cow in
speak. This in turn selects the Cow->sound method, which
returns moooo. But how different would this be for the Horse?
{ package Horse;
sub sound { "neigh" }
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes ", $class->sound, "!\n"
}
}
Only the name of the package and the specific sound change. So can we
somehow share the definition for C<speak> between the Cow and the
Horse? Yes, with inheritance!
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Calling a second method to simplify things
class Cow # 'sound' is a method, not a variable
def sound
"moooo"
end
def speak
print "A cow goes #{sound}!\n"
end
end
aCow = Cow.new aCow.speak
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
We'll define a common subroutine package called Animal, with the
definition for speak:
{ package Animal;
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes ", $class->sound, "!\n"
}
}
Then, for each animal, we say it ``inherits'' from Animal, along
with the animal-specific sound:
{ package Cow;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "moooo" }
}
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Inherit method from the superclass
class Animal
def speak
print "A #{self.class} goes #{sound}!\n"
end
end
class Cow < Animal
def sound
"moooo"
end
end
aCow = Cow.new aCow.speak
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
Note the added @ISA array. We'll get to that in a minute.
But what happens when we invoke Cow->speak now?
First, Perl constructs the argument list. In this case, it's just
Cow. Then Perl looks for Cow::speak. But that's not there, so
Perl checks for the inheritance array @Cow::ISA. It's there,
and contains the single name Animal.
Perl next checks for speak inside Animal instead, as in
Animal::speak. And that's found, so Perl invokes that subroutine
with the already frozen argument list.
Inside the Animal::speak subroutine, $class becomes Cow (the
first argument). So when we get to the step of invoking
$class->sound, it'll be looking for Cow->sound, which
gets it on the first try without looking at @ISA. Success!
This magical @ISA variable (pronounced ``is a'' not ``ice-uh''), has
declared that Cow ``is a'' Animal. Note that it's an array,
not a simple single value, because on rare occasions, it makes sense
to have more than one parent class searched for the missing methods.
If Animal also had an @ISA, then we'd check there too. The
search is recursive, depth-first, left-to-right in each @ISA.
Typically, each @ISA has only one element (multiple elements means
multiple inheritance and multiple headaches), so we get a nice tree of
inheritance.
When we turn on use strict, we'll get complaints on @ISA, since
it's not a variable containing an explicit package name, nor is it a
lexical (``my'') variable. We can't make it a lexical variable though
(it has to belong to the package to be found by the inheritance mechanism),
so there's a couple of straightforward ways to handle that.
The easiest is to just spell the package name out:
@Cow::ISA = qw(Animal);
Or allow it as an implicitly named package variable:
package Cow;
use vars qw(@ISA);
@ISA = qw(Animal);
If you're bringing in the class from outside, via an object-oriented module, you change:
package Cow;
use Animal;
use vars qw(@ISA);
@ISA = qw(Animal);
into just:
package Cow;
use base qw(Animal);
And that's pretty darn compact.
Let's add a mouse, which can barely be heard:
# Animal package from before
{ package Mouse;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "squeak" }
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes ", $class->sound, "!\n";
print "[but you can barely hear it!]\n";
}
}
Mouse->speak;
which results in:
a Mouse goes squeak!
[but you can barely hear it!]
Here, Mouse has its own speaking routine, so Mouse->speak
doesn't immediately invoke Animal->speak. This is known as
``overriding''. In fact, we didn't even need to say that a Mouse was
an Animal at all, since all of the methods needed for speak are
completely defined with Mouse.
But we've now duplicated some of the code from Animal->speak,
and this can once again be a maintenance headache. So, can we avoid
that? Can we say somehow that a Mouse does everything any other
Animal does, but add in the extra comment? Sure!
First, we can invoke the Animal::speak method directly:
# Animal package from before
{ package Mouse;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "squeak" }
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
Animal::speak($class);
print "[but you can barely hear it!]\n";
}
}
Note that we have to include the $class parameter (almost surely
the value of "Mouse") as the first parameter to Animal::speak,
since we've stopped using the method arrow. Why did we stop? Well,
if we invoke Animal->speak there, the first parameter to the
method will be "Animal" not "Mouse", and when time comes for it
to call for the sound, it won't have the right class to come back
to this package.
Invoking Animal::speak directly is a mess, however. What if
Animal::speak didn't exist before, and was being inherited from a
class mentioned in @Animal::ISA? Because we are no longer using
the method arrow, we get one and only one chance to hit the right
subroutine.
Also note that the Animal classname is now hardwired into the
subroutine selection. This is a mess if someone maintains the code,
changing @ISA for <Mouse> and didn't notice Animal there in
speak. So, this is probably not the right way to go.
A better solution is to tell Perl to search from a higher place in the inheritance chain:
# same Animal as before
{ package Mouse;
# same @ISA, &sound as before
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
$class->Animal::speak;
print "[but you can barely hear it!]\n";
}
}
Ahh. This works. Using this syntax, we start with Animal to find
speak, and use all of Animal's inheritance chain if not found
immediately. And yet the first parameter will be $class, so the
found speak method will get Mouse as its first entry, and
eventually work its way back to Mouse::sound for the details.
But this isn't the best solution. We still have to keep the @ISA
and the initial search package coordinated. Worse, if Mouse had
multiple entries in @ISA, we wouldn't necessarily know which one
had actually defined speak. So, is there an even better way?
By changing the Animal class to the SUPER class in that
invocation, we get a search of all of our super classes (classes
listed in @ISA) automatically:
# same Animal as before
{ package Mouse;
# same @ISA, &sound as before
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
$class->SUPER::speak;
print "[but you can barely hear it!]\n";
}
}
So, SUPER::speak means look in the current package's @ISA for
speak, invoking the first one found.
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Use of 'super' in subclass method definition # to customize subclass
class Animal
def speak
print "A #{self.class} goes #{sound}!\n"
end
end
class Mouse < Animal
def sound
"squeak"
end
def speak
super
puts "[but you can barely hear it!]"
end
end
aMouse = Mouse.new aMouse.speak
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
So far, we've seen the method arrow syntax:
Class->method(@args);
or the equivalent:
$a = "Class"; $a->method(@args);
which constructs an argument list of:
("Class", @args)
and attempts to invoke
Class::method("Class", @Args);
However, if Class::method is not found, then @Class::ISA is examined
(recursively) to locate a package that does indeed contain method,
and that subroutine is invoked instead.
Using this simple syntax, we have class methods, (multiple) inheritance, overriding, and extending. Using just what we've seen so far, we've been able to factor out common code, and provide a nice way to reuse implementations with variations. This is at the core of what objects provide, but objects also provide instance data, which we haven't even begun to cover.
Let's start with the code for the Animal class
and the Horse class:
{ package Animal;
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes ", $class->sound, "!\n"
}
}
{ package Horse;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "neigh" }
}
This lets us invoke Horse->speak to ripple upward to
Animal::speak, calling back to Horse::sound to get the specific
sound, and the output of:
a Horse goes neigh!
But all of our Horse objects would have to be absolutely identical. If I add a subroutine, all horses automatically share it. That's great for making horses the same, but how do we capture the distinctions about an individual horse? For example, suppose I want to give my first horse a name. There's got to be a way to keep its name separate from the other horses.
We can do that by drawing a new distinction, called an ``instance''. An ``instance'' is generally created by a class. In Perl, any reference can be an instance, so let's start with the simplest reference that can hold a horse's name: a scalar reference.
my $name = "Mr. Ed"; my $talking = \$name;
So now $talking is a reference to what will be the instance-specific
data (the name). The final step in turning this into a real instance
is with a special operator called bless:
bless $talking, Horse;
This operator stores information about the package named Horse into
the thing pointed at by the reference. At this point, we say
$talking is an instance of Horse. That is, it's a specific
horse. The reference is otherwise unchanged, and can still be used
with traditional dereferencing operators.
The method arrow can be used on instances, as well as names of
packages (classes). So, let's get the sound that $talking makes:
my $noise = $talking->sound;
To invoke sound, Perl first notes that $talking is a blessed
reference (and thus an instance). It then constructs an argument
list, in this case from just ($talking). (Later we'll see that
arguments will take their place following the instance variable,
just like with classes.)
Now for the fun part: Perl takes the class in which the instance was
blessed, in this case Horse, and uses that to locate the subroutine
to invoke the method. In this case, Horse::sound is found directly
(without using inheritance), yielding the final subroutine invocation:
Horse::sound($talking)
Note that the first parameter here is still the instance, not the name
of the class as before. We'll get neigh as the return value, and
that'll end up as the $noise variable above.
If Horse::sound had not been found, we'd be wandering up the
@Horse::ISA list to try to find the method in one of the
superclasses, just as for a class method. The only difference between
a class method and an instance method is whether the first parameter
is an instance (a blessed reference) or a class name (a string).
Because we get the instance as the first parameter, we can now access the instance-specific data. In this case, let's add a way to get at the name:
{ package Horse;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "neigh" }
sub name {
my $self = shift;
$$self;
}
}
Now we call for the name:
print $talking->name, " says ", $talking->sound, "\n";
Inside Horse::name, the @_ array contains just $talking,
which the shift stores into $self. (It's traditional to shift
the first parameter off into a variable named $self for instance
methods, so stay with that unless you have strong reasons otherwise.)
Then, $self gets de-referenced as a scalar ref, yielding Mr. Ed,
and we're done with that. The result is:
Mr. Ed says neigh.
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Instance variable to customize an object, @name
class Animal
def speak
print "A #{self.class} goes #{sound}!\n"
end
end
class Horse < Animal
def initialize(name)
@name = name
end
def sound
"neigh"
end
def speak
super # Include super to add superclass's definition
# to this class's definition of speak
print @name, " says ", sound, "\n"
end
# Attribute reader makes 'name' variable available # outside the scope of the object attr_reader :name end
talking = Horse.new("Mr. Ed")
talking.speak
print talking.name, " says ", talking.sound, "\n"
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
Of course, if we constructed all of our horses by hand, we'd most likely make mistakes from time to time. We're also violating one of the properties of object-oriented programming, in that the ``inside guts'' of a Horse are visible. That's good if you're a veterinarian, but not if you just like to own horses. So, let's let the Horse class build a new horse:
{ package Horse;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "neigh" }
sub name {
my $self = shift;
$$self;
}
sub named {
my $class = shift;
my $name = shift;
bless \$name, $class;
}
}
Now with the new named method, we can build a horse:
my $talking = Horse->named("Mr. Ed");
Notice we're back to a class method, so the two arguments to
Horse::named are Horse and Mr. Ed. The bless operator
not only blesses $name, it also returns the reference to $name,
so that's fine as a return value. And that's how to build a horse.
We've called the constructor named here, so that it quickly denotes
the constructor's argument as the name for this particular Horse.
You can use different constructors with different names for different
ways of ``giving birth'' to the object (like maybe recording its
pedigree or date of birth). However, you'll find that most people
coming to Perl from more limited languages use a single constructor
named new, with various ways of interpreting the arguments to
new. Either style is fine, as long as you document your particular
way of giving birth to an object. (And you were going to do that,
right?)
But was there anything specific to Horse in that method? No. Therefore,
it's also the same recipe for building anything else that inherited from
Animal, so let's put it there:
{ package Animal;
sub speak {
my $class = shift;
print "a $class goes ", $class->sound, "!\n"
}
sub name {
my $self = shift;
$$self;
}
sub named {
my $class = shift;
my $name = shift;
bless \$name, $class;
}
}
{ package Horse;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "neigh" }
}
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Initialize 'name' in superclass
class Animal
def initialize(name)
@name = name
end
def speak
print "A #{self.class} goes #{sound}!\n"
end
end
class Horse < Animal
def sound
"neigh"
end
def speak
super
print @name, " says ", sound, "\n"
end
end
talking = Horse.new("Mr. Ed")
talking.speak
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
Ahh, but what happens if we invoke speak on an instance?
my $talking = Horse->named("Mr. Ed");
$talking->speak;
We get a debugging value:
a Horse=SCALAR(0xaca42ac) goes neigh!
Why? Because the Animal::speak routine is expecting a classname as
its first parameter, not an instance. When the instance is passed in,
we'll end up using a blessed scalar reference as a string, and that
shows up as we saw it just now.
All we need is for a method to detect if it is being called on a class
or called on an instance. The most straightforward way is with the
ref operator. This returns a string (the classname) when used on a
blessed reference, and undef when used on a string (like a
classname). Let's modify the name method first to notice the change:
sub name {
my $either = shift;
ref $either
? $$either # it's an instance, return name
: "an unnamed $either"; # it's a class, return generic
}
Here, the ?: operator comes in handy to select either the
dereference or a derived string. Now we can use this with either an
instance or a class. Note that I've changed the first parameter
holder to $either to show that this is intended:
my $talking = Horse->named("Mr. Ed");
print Horse->name, "\n"; # prints "an unnamed Horse\n"
print $talking->name, "\n"; # prints "Mr Ed.\n"
and now we'll fix speak to use this:
sub speak {
my $either = shift;
print $either->name, " goes ", $either->sound, "\n";
}
And since sound already worked with either a class or an instance,
we're done!
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Making a method work with either classes or instances
# TBD: Does Ruby have a problem w/ this like Perl?
# Ruby class methods are specified w/ class-name prefix, eg # Class.method # # One way to handle the case where no 'name' is provided
class Animal
def initialize(name)
if name == ""
@name = "an unnamed #{self.class} "
else
@name = name
end
end
def speak
print @name, " says ", sound, "\n"
end
end
class Horse < Animal def sound; "neigh"; end end
aHorse = Horse.new("")
aHorse.speak
talking = Horse.new("Mr. Ed")
talking.speak
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
Let's train our animals to eat:
{ package Animal;
sub named {
my $class = shift;
my $name = shift;
bless \$name, $class;
}
sub name {
my $either = shift;
ref $either
? $$either # it's an instance, return name
: "an unnamed $either"; # it's a class, return generic
}
sub speak {
my $either = shift;
print $either->name, " goes ", $either->sound, "\n";
}
sub eat {
my $either = shift;
my $food = shift;
print $either->name, " eats $food.\n";
}
}
{ package Horse;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "neigh" }
}
{ package Sheep;
@ISA = qw(Animal);
sub sound { "baaaah" }
}
And now try it out:
my $talking = Horse->named("Mr. Ed");
$talking->eat("hay");
Sheep->eat("grass");
which prints:
Mr. Ed eats hay. an unnamed Sheep eats grass.
An instance method with parameters gets invoked with the instance, and then the list of parameters. So that first invocation is like:
Animal::eat($talking, "hay");
##### Start Ruby #############################
# Adding parameters to a method
class Animal
def initialize(name)
if name == ""
@name = "an unnamed #{self.class} "
else
@name = name
end
end
def speak
print @name, " says ", sound, "\n"
end
def eat(food)
@food = food
print @name, " eats ", food, "\n"
end
end
class Horse < Animal def sound; "neigh"; end end
class Sheep < Animal def sound; "baaaah"; end end
talking = Horse.new("Mr. Ed")
talking.eat("hay")
Sheep.new("").eat("grass")
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
What if an instance needs more data? Most interesting instances are made of many items, each of which can in turn be a reference or even another object. The easiest way to store these is often in a hash. The keys of the hash serve as the names of parts of the object (often called ``instance variables'' or ``member variables''), and the corresponding values are, well, the values.
But how do we turn the horse into a hash? Recall that an object was any blessed reference. We can just as easily make it a blessed hash reference as a blessed scalar reference, as long as everything that looks at the reference is changed accordingly.
Let's make a sheep that has a name and a color:
my $bad = bless { Name => "Evil", Color => "black" }, Sheep;
so $bad->{Name} has Evil, and $bad->{Color} has
black. But we want to make $bad->name access the name, and
that's now messed up because it's expecting a scalar reference. Not
to worry, because that's pretty easy to fix up:
## in Animal
sub name {
my $either = shift;
ref $either ?
$either->{Name} :
"an unnamed $either";
}
And of course named still builds a scalar sheep, so let's fix that
as well:
## in Animal
sub named {
my $class = shift;
my $name = shift;
my $self = { Name => $name, Color => $class->default_color };
bless $self, $class;
}
What's this default_color? Well, if named has only the name,
we still need to set a color, so we'll have a class-specific initial color.
For a sheep, we might define it as white:
## in Sheep
sub default_color { "white" }
And then to keep from having to define one for each additional class,
we'll define a ``backstop'' method that serves as the ``default default'',
directly in Animal:
## in Animal
sub default_color { "brown" }
Now, because name and named were the only methods that
referenced the ``structure'' of the object, the rest of the methods can
remain the same, so speak still works as before.
##### Start Ruby #############################
# More interesting instances
class Animal
def initialize(name, color)
if name == ""
@name = "an unnamed #{self.class} "
else
@name = name
end
if color == ""
@color = default_color # Same as self.default_color
else
@color = color
end
end
def speak
print @name, " says ", sound, "\n"
end
def eat(food)
@food = food
print @name, " eats ", food, "\n"
end
def default_color; "brown"; end
def show_color
print self.class, " ", @name, " has color #{@color}!\n"
end
end
class Horse < Animal def sound; "neigh"; end end
class Sheep < Animal def sound; "baaaah"; end def default_color; "white"; end end
bad = Sheep.new( "Evil", "black") bad.show_color
bad2 = Sheep.new( "Mac", "") # Use Sheep's default_color bad2.show_color
aHorse = Horse.new("","") # Use Animal's default_color
aHorse.show_color
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
But having all our horses be brown would be boring. So let's add a method or two to get and set the color.
## in Animal
sub color {
$_[0]->{Color}
}
sub set_color {
$_[0]->{Color} = $_[1];
}
Note the alternate way of accessing the arguments: $_[0] is used
in-place, rather than with a shift. (This saves us a bit of time
for something that may be invoked frequently.) And now we can fix
that color for Mr. Ed:
my $talking = Horse->named("Mr. Ed");
$talking->set_color("black-and-white");
print $talking->name, " is colored ", $talking->color, "\n";
which results in:
Mr. Ed is colored black-and-white
##### Start Ruby #############################
class Animal
def initialize(name)
if name == ""
@name = "an unnamed #{self.class} "
else
@name = name
end
end
def speak
print @name, " says ", sound, "\n"
end
def eat(food)
@food = food
print @name, " eats ", food, "\n"
end
def default_color; "brown"; end
# Method color replaced by attr_reader # Method set_color replaced by attr_writer
# Allow instance variables to be read outside the object attr_reader :name, :color
# Allow instance variables to be written outside the object attr_writer :color
end
class Horse < Animal def sound; "neigh"; end end
class Sheep < Animal def sound; "baaaah"; end def default_color; "white"; end end
talking = Horse.new("Mr. Ed")
talking.color = "black-and-white"
print talking.name, " is colored ", talking.color, "\n"
##### Finish Ruby ##############################
So, now we have class methods, constructors, instance methods,
instance data, and even accessors. But that's still just the
beginning of what Perl has to offer. We haven't even begun to talk
about accessors that double as getters and setters, destructors,
indirect object notation, subclasses that add instance data, per-class
data, overloading, ``isa'' and ``can'' tests, UNIVERSAL class, and so
on. That's for the rest of the Perl documentation to cover.
Hopefully, this gets you started, though.
For more information, see perlobj (for all the gritty details about Perl objects, now that you've seen the basics), perltoot (the tutorial for those who already know objects), perlbot (for some more tricks), and books such as Damian Conway's excellent Object Oriented Perl.
For more information on Ruby see http://www.ruby-lang.org.
See the Ruby Application Archive for the latest version of this document: http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/raa.html (for English).
Copyright (c) 1999, 2000 by Randal L. Schwartz and Stonehenge Consulting Services, Inc. Permission is hereby granted to distribute this document intact with the Perl distribution, and in accordance with the licenses of the Perl distribution; derived documents must include this copyright notice intact.
Portions of this text have been derived from Perl Training materials originally appearing in the Packages, References, Objects, and Modules course taught by instructors for Stonehenge Consulting Services, Inc. and used with permission.
Portions of this text have been derived from materials originally appearing in Linux Magazine and used with permission.
Portions of this text related to Ruby by C. L. Poda.